最近抓到一些知識性頗高的參考資料
一篇訪問NIIP研究主任等的報導
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/armstrade/message/6038
在訪問之前﹐有些不錯的雷達基本知識
個人將分段貼出

Tikhomirov NIIP, which specializes in the design of radars for combat aircraft and surface-to-air missile systems

CEP20010823000363 Moscow Nezavisimoye Voyennoye Obozreniye in Russian 24 Aug 01
[Interview with Yuriy Ivanovich Beliy, director of Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Building (NIIP) imeni V.V. Tikhomirov and an Air Force reserve colonel, by Sergey Sokut, Le Bourget-Moscow: The Aircraft Will See With Its Skin]

Yuriy Beliy, Director of the NII [Scientific Research Institute] of Instrument Building, Thinks That There is no Alternative to Radars

The times of dog fights, as close-range air battles are called abroad, are passing. Victory is increasingly attained through the use of medium range missiles, which was revealed, specifically, in the skies of Iraq and Yugoslavia. The presence of a number of conditions, the most important among which is the long-range detection and identification of the airborne enemy, is needed for the successful employment of missiles beyond visible range.

An aircraft radar complex is the primary means which is accomplishing that task today and in the foreseeable future. Its primary component - the RLS [radar] - is the fighter aircrafts most complex and expensive instrument - constituting approximately one percent of the aircrafts weight, it provides a 10-12 percent contribution to its cost, but then again, that share is increasing from generation to generation.

We can divide all modern fighter aircraft radars into two large groups. The first, whose time is passing, - these are systems with a mechanical scan (surveillance) of space. The second, which is oriented on the future - are radars with an electronic scan.

In their turn, radars with a mechanical scan constitute two subclasses. The former were radars with parabolic antennas, in which the radar beam is formed and directed to the needed point using the dish that is well known to everyone. One of the versions of these systems - is a Cassegrain twin-mirror antenna, which is used in the radars of Su-27 and MiG-29 fighter aircraft. These radars are simple and cheap but have an entire series of shortcomings, the most important of which is the low operating range against targets in the rear hemisphere (in pursuit).

World design thought solved that problem in the 1970s, having developed slotted array antennas (ShchAR). With other equal specifications, they permit us to provide approximately five percent greater range than parabolic antennas, however, they are 1.5 times more expensive. The cost increase is associated with the use of adequately complex technologies for the development of wave guides, through which high-frequency radiation is brought up to the slots in the flat antenna. Once and for all the radars beam (antenna radiation pattern) forms the modified selection of the length of the wave guides, and a turn of the entire array using an electronic or hydraulic drive permits us to orient that beam in space.

The AN/AWG-9, the first radar with a slotted antenna, was installed on the U.S. Navys F-14 fighter aircraft (1974). In the 1970s, radars for American fourth-generation fighter aircraft and, specifically, the An/APG-63 totally digital radar for the F-15, were developed based upon it. Slotted antennas were unlucky in Russia - in the 1980s, we were late with their introduction and, in the 1990s, for understandable reasons, we also didnt manage to re-equip fighter aircraft. At present, the installation of a radar with a slotted array antenna makes sense during the modernization of relatively cheap aircraft, largely export models (the MiG-21-93 and MiG-29). In Russia, Fazotron-NIIR [Scientific Research Institute of Radars] has achieved the greatest success in the development of these radars (See NVO No.s 24 and 27 for 2001).

However, systems with a mechanical scan are ineffective in a long-range dogfight with a group of modern enemy fighter aircraft. The insurmountable defect of these radars - is the impossibility of combining the two modes: guiding missiles to the target and surveillance. A term was even invented for radars with a mechanical scan: track while scan. That means that, while continuously scanning space, the radar locates the current position of several previously detected targets. This method proves worthwhile when combating non-maneuvering, low-speed targets (for example - cruise missiles).

But when a fighter aircraft confronts a fighter aircraft, the conditions in the sky are totally different. Both opponents intensively maneuver, while striving to disrupt the enemys attack. The angular velocity of a turn of a fourth-generation aircraft reaches 30 degrees per second, that is, having launched its missiles, it nearly instantaneously radically changes course. In order to destroy it, you need to record the coordinates and velocity vector 5-10 times per second. Meanwhile, an antenna with a mechanical scan during track while scan will once again determine the enemys position in no less than a second. Therefore, in a real dogfight, having detected an enemy fighter aircraft, the pilot is compelled to shift that radar to the continuous bearing mode (that is, the continuous accurate determination of the coordinates). But, in the process, the capability for airspace surveillance is completely lost, which will result in an obvious defeat in a dogfight with a group of aircraft.

The solution to the problem was found in the electronic scan. Phased array antennas (FAR) were also developed for this purpose. In this case, the shift of the beam is achieved, as a rule, without a mechanical turn of the antenna, which is a minimum of 1,000 times faster.

To the credit of native scientists and designers, they understood the prospects of phased array antennas earlier than others. The development of the Zaslon weapon control system for the MiG-31 interceptor was begun in the USSR in the 1970s. And at the beginning of the 1980s, the first radar in the world with an electronic scan was accepted into the inventory. As a result, today the MiG-31 also remains an unsurpassed fighter-interceptor.

Domestically-produced phased array antennas are in the subclass of passive radars. There is one radiation source in them, just like in systems with a mechanical scan. The aggregate of small electronic devices, that are called phase shifters, determines the shape of the beam and its direction. Radars with passive phased array antennas are relatively inexpensive - their cost is approximately 1.5-2 times more than for radars with parabolic antennas (in other words, the cost of radars with a shift to passive phased array antennas is increasing more slowly than the aircrafts total cost).

But at the present time, it is very difficult to calculate the cost of another version of phased array antennas - active phased array antennas. At the present time, these antennas exist only abroad and only in individual models. An active phased array antenna integrates 2,000-2,500 modules, each of which is both a transmitter and a receiver. At the present time, the cost of one module, that is being developed, for example, for the F-22A and JSF [Joint Strike Fighter], totals approximately $10,000. Correspondingly, the entire radar turns out to be more expensive than the aircraft. The Americans are assigning the task to bring the cost of the module down to $400. But even in this case the cost of a radar with an active phased array antenna will turn out to be an order of magnitude higher than present radars.

From the NVO Dossier

Yuriy Ivanovich Beliy was born in Vinnitsa Oblast in Ukraine in 1951. In 1974, he graduated from MVTU [Moscow Higher Technical University] imeni Bauman with the specialty of radio engineer. From 1974 through 1988, he served in the Air Force and is a reserve colonel. Since March 1998 - he has been the director of NII [Scientific Research Institute] of Instrument Building (NIIP) imeni V.V. Tikhomirov, which is involved with the development of radars for military aircraft and air defense missile systems.

[Sokut] Yuriy Ivanovich, your institute displayed the Pero FAR [Phased Array Antenna] for the first time at an exhibition at Le Bourget. On which aircraft do you plan to install it?

[Beliy] First and foremost on the Su-30KN. Right now the antenna is being mated to the fighters avionics suite on an Irkutsk Aviation Production Association test stand. Our institute is conducting similar work with the Air Force within the framework of the line aircraft modernization program. Those states, which have many Su-27s and Su-30s in their inventory, are also expressing interest in the new antenna. Negotiations are being conduced with them.

[Sokut] Can you compare the specifications of the Su-27 fighter aircraft radar with the old antenna with the Pero?

[Beliy] The majority of the specifications have not changed. However, the radar has acquired a totally new quality: a real multi-target tracking and firing mode and, what is more important, the capability to continue surveillance of space while guiding its missiles to the enemy aircraft.

[Sokut] The opinion is being expressed that the modernization and maintenance of the N001 Radar in an operable state - that is a too expensive luxury due to obsolete components. Do you agree with that?

[Beliy] When the decision is being made: to install a new radar or to conduct the modernization of the old one, you need to painstakingly weigh all of the pros and cons. The problems of the element base - are hardly the primary factor, all the more so that up to 70 percent of the components in the new radars - are those same microcircuit capacitors and other electronic elements.

Another issue is more important. The mass replacement of radars will require the renewal of all test stands and spare parts at all of the units. We need to organize the series production of the new radars and radically restructure the technology of maintenance. With the actually existing level of financing, we will manage to complete the replacement of the BRLS [onboard radars] precisely by the end of the life cycles of the Su-27 and MiG-29. There will be no aircraft to carry the new radar.

[Sokut] And what is the reliability of the old radars?

[Beliy] Low reliability - that is also precisely the problem of the new equipment. At the first stage of the introduction of the N001 radars, their mean time between failures totaled 4-5 hours. That indicator increased to an acceptable 200 hours after a quite prolonged stage of operation. During the mastery of the new radars at line units, you will inevitably have to go through a substantial reduction of the fleets combat readiness.

[Sokut] What is the cost of the modernization of the Su-27 and Su-30 based upon your variant?

[Beliy] The upgrade based upon the full program with the installation of a phased array antenna and the introduction of new operating modes against land-based and airborne targets is assessed at approximately 35 percent of the cost of a new radar.

[Sokut] Were new trends in radars displayed at the exhibition at Le Bourget?

[Beliy] Little was displayed at the exhibit in that sphere. For the second year in a row, the Americans are advertising a radar with an active phased array antenna (FAR) for the JSF. For us it is obvious that they are investing quite a bit of money in the development and are experiencing a mass of technical problems. A European consortium - England, France, Germany, and Sweden, which has joined them - is attempting to build a similar radar. However, so far, neither military nor industry personnel have explained in an intelligible manner - what advantages an active phased array antenna provides. When you compare the advertised capabilities with the cost of the work, you begin to think: is this more trouble than its worth?

[Sokut] Nevertheless, a phased array antenna provides a substantial increase of fighter aircraft combat capabilities. How can Russia respond?

[Beliy] For now, our country cant compete in the sphere of active phased array antennas - our financial capabilities do not permit that. We need to either seek a strategic partner or follow the path of the development of passive phased array antennas. We have enormous experience and a unique reserve in this sphere. It permits us to ensure parity with expenditures that are an order of magnitude lower than in the West.

[Sokut] But when will the active radars become mass produced?

[Beliy] The first models will appear abroad by 2005 and series production will begin by 2007-2010. But domestically-produced radars with passive phased array antennas are already in series production.

[Sokut] Several years ago discussions appeared in the military-technical press about the fact that phased array antennas will permit us to develop conformal (incorporated into the aircraft design) antennas. The following term even appeared - smart skin. When will it appear?

[Beliy] We have been proposing passive conformal antennas for a long time now and we are prepared to manufacture them. Today we can provide 360 degree surveillance of the space around an aircraft using them. Only an order is needed. If it will be received - the Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Building will be able to realize that in 2-3 years. The problem is that you need to incorporate the conformal antennas into the aircraft design at the design stage. It is nearly impossible to install them on old fighter aircraft.

For active phased array antennas, the problem of developing smart skins is even more complex. We need to guide only a high frequency signal to the passive antennas, but also power and cooling for active antennas. It is with good reason that they plan to install only a frontal antenna on the JSF and, only after its mastery, also introduce (obviously, already on the F-22A) two side radars to broaden surveillance.

[Sokut] And how do you plan to solve the problem of expanding the sector of surveillance, really you know that a phased array antenna lags behind parabolic and slotted antennas based upon that parameter?

[Beliy] We install passive arrays on an electrohydraulic drive, thereby providing deflection along the azimuth and increasing the zone of surveillance. Incidentally, in principle that path is impossible for active phased array antennas due to those same problems that arise during the development of conformal antennas. We already traveled that path during the development of the MFI [Multi-Function Fighter Aircraft] and that is precisely why we designed the N011M radar for the Su-30MKI, the passive phased array antenna of which is deflected along the azimuth.

[Sokut] In an NVO interview (No. 46 for 2000), Academician Yevgeniy Fedosov proposed to solve the problem of the high cost of active phased array antennas through the standardization of the frequency ranges in the various branches of the Armed Forces, which permits us to standardize and therefore reduce the cost of the reception-transmission modules. How do you regard that approach?

[Beliy] There are pluses and minuses here. Work in one range engenders the problem of electromagnetic compatibility. Furthermore, if we are talking about a narrow range, jam-proofing is dramatically reduced.

We need to introduce standardization at the level of technologies. Incidentally, in June our institute won a competition for the conduct of research in the sphere of the development of inter-branch active arrays.

[Sokut] You mentioned the N011M radar, which is being developed for the Su-30MKI. The first series-production aircraft of this type must be delivered to India in a year. How is the development of the radar progressing?

[Beliy] The situation instills optimism. At one time, the lock-on of a target and its tracking was carried out on the very first flight. We managed to realize the air-to-surface mode after a certain period of time. All of the radars primary specifications have already been confirmed, although we need to do a lot to get it into shape.

That progress depends on a large scientific-technical reserve. We began to design the N011 radars already in the 1980s within the framework of the Su-27M Program. Unfortunately, at that time it was thought that the mass-production aircraft did not need an effective and relatively expensive radar with a phased array antenna. Our institute conducted work on a radar with a phased array antenna in a semi-clandestine manner. We managed to build and test a radar initially with a slotted antenna and then with a previous generation phased array antenna.

At the present time, while developing a basic radar within the framework of the Su-30MKI Program, we are developing qualitatively new equipment for Russias Air Force. At the same time, we are developing the new Osa compact radar for light aircraft.

[Sokut] In connection with the trend toward aircraft signature reduction, is a rejection of radars as the primary means for detecting airborne targets and a shift to optical-electronic systems possible?

[Beliy] It is difficult to develop an alternative to radar for operations against airborne targets - the signature of aircraft in the infrared range is also being reduced. The use of television systems is also problematical - atmospheric formations at long range do not permit us to do that.

[Sokut] Nevertheless, at Le Bourget the French advertised the Damocles optical-electronic equipment, which will be able to detect a target at a range of 150 kilometers and identify it from 40 kilometers by 2005-2006.

[Beliy] Maybe, it will also be able to, not only under ideal conditions, in the background of a clear sky, but in the rear hemisphere, where there is more infrared radiation.

In our opinion, a fundamentally new direction - passive radar - is more productive. We need to intercept the radiation of a hostile aircrafts entire electronic filling: of the radar, and the navigation, communications, and state identification systems. The comprehensive processing of this information will permit us to detect and identify targets, and the software, that we have already developed on the MiG-31, will permit us to determine its coordinates with high accuracy.

There is one more direction that we are developing today. That - is bistatic radar, the impetus for the development of which was provided by the appearance of satellite navigation systems. One transmitter and several receivers exist, which receive radiation. The software permits us to determine the coordinates of the target and, in the process, the aircraft, that operate in receive mode, remain unnoticed. Incidentally, we have already realized that technology and have obtained the first positive results in tests.

被動式相位列陣雷達主要是由一具發射源發射信號至天線﹐在被動式相位列陣雷達
天線上有許多移相器(phase shifters)來控制波束的形狀與方向

被動式相位列陣雷達通常價格是同型拋物線天線雷達的1.5-2倍

而主動式相位列陣雷達的天線上通常有2,000-2,500的收發模組﹐ 目前一個收發模
組(正在發展中﹐用於F-22A﹐JSF)的價格為一萬美元左右﹐未來的努力目標為400美
元

由於經費問題﹐俄國的空用相位列陣雷達都是以被動式為主

Article on Fazotron-NIIRs foreign modernization programs. It is installing its new Kope radar in Indian MiG-21 fighters and upgrading Chinas F-8s with its Zhuk radar.
CEP20010815000336 Moscow Vremya MN in Russian 15 Aug 01
[Article by Ivan Nikolayev: Modernization is Also A Business]

Modernization is also a business.

The corporation Fazotron-NIIR [Scientific Research Institute for Radar] is reinforcing its positions in the aviation equipment modernization market. This was declared in the corporations presentation at the show MAKS-2001. In the near future, this sector will be a most profitable one since the majority of the worlds countries, including those that were previously supplied with Soviet aviation equipment, either have adopted or are adopting large scale programs for modernizing their airplane and helicopter pools.

Up to now, one of the most widely distributed fighters in the world has been the MiG-21. India has the largest pool of these aircraft among foreign countries. Fazotron-NIIR is participating in a program for modernizing 125 of the Indian Air Forces MiG-21bis aircraft, the foundation of which is the installation of the new on-board radar set (BRLS) Kope. At this moment, a full cycle of testing has been completed on the set in the first two modernized MiG-21bis fighters. The results of the testing exceeded the Indian specialists expectations. An official request has been signed for receiving additional sets and, as things stood in July of 2001, 28 of the BRLS sets had already been delivered to India. In accordance with the schedule, another 20 Kope BRLS units will be transferred to the Indian party by the end of 2001. The rate for future deliveries will depend only on the Indian partys timely payment for the order. The corporations available capacity will allow it to manufacture a significantly greater number of BRLS units of various types.

Convinced of the high effectiveness and reliability of this radar, the Indian party today intends to purchase a license for its production. At this time, an option for concluding an appropriate licensing contract is under consideration.

As was stated in the presentation, yet another large Indian order for the corporation could be outfitting the MiG-29K deck aviation fighters, which will be based on the aircraft-carrying cruiser Admiral Gorshkov, with the Zhuk-M BRLS.

Recently a delegation of the Indian-Russian intergovernmental group visited Moscow for the purpose of clarifying the issue of acquiring Ka-52 strike helicopters with the Arbalyet BRLS, which was developed and manufactured by Fazotron-NIIR. Concluding a contract for the acquisition of these helicopters is completely realistic.

Fazotron-NIIR is also performing active work in the Chinese market. The testing cycle has been completed on the Zhuk BRLS on the Chinese F8-IIM fighter. The Zhuk BRLS is connected to all the fighters on-board systems, including its guided weapons. A large number of flights have been conducted, which fully confirmed the BRLS units compliance with the declared characteristics in all modes. In the course of testing, special note was made of the radars high resolution in terrain mapping mode. The testing demonstrated the ability for missile combat employment at maximum target approach speed.

Using the Zhuk BRLS significantly expands the combat capabilities of the Chinese fighter and enhances the effectiveness of its use several-fold. Fazotron-NIIR is counting on getting an order to outfit a large batch of F8-IIM aircraft.

In addition, right now a program for testing the Zhemchug BRLS is being implemented, which is slated for installation on Chinese fighters. Ground testing on the set has been completed. The flight testing program is more than 60% complete. Discussion is underway with the Chinese party about the possible sale of both individual blocks with final assembly in China, as well as the purchase of fully assembled radars.

A contract has also been signed with China for delivering antenna arrays and transmitters. The signing of a substantially larger contract for supplying these components is expected.

[Description of Source: Moscow Vremya MN in Russian -- daily newspaper published since May 1998 by Moskovskiye Novosti, aimed at an elite audience and carrying relatively objective reporting with a liberal tilt]

主要是機載雷達(on-board radar set (BRLS) )的安裝﹐其連接J-8II上面的機載系
統﹐包含導引武器。

測試時發現﹐其地形繪圖(terrain mapping)有相當高的解析度﹐並展示其在最大接
戰速度下的飛彈戰鬥投入的能力(筆者註﹕不知道有多好﹖)

KOPYO在俄文為矛之意﹐這款雷達主要是用在MIG-21-93型﹐用以提昇MIG-21為第四
代多功能戰機

其性能如下﹕
空對空模式
1. 偵測距離﹕
空中﹕
對頭接戰>50km(RCS3m^2之目標)
追逐>30km

在有地面雜波的情形下﹕
對頭接戰>50km(RCS3m^2之目標)
追逐>25km

2. 單目標的探測與追蹤距離為偵測距離的0,75
3. TWS模式同時應戰2個目標
4. 提供AAM定標及建立發射區域資料(launch zone generation)
5. 近戰操作模式﹕
-垂直
-平行校準(collimating)
-頭盔瞄準具介面
-R-27, RVV-AE 與 R-73E 介面
-內建自我測試

-對地操作模式
地圖繪製﹕
低解析度(real beam)
中解析度(Doppler sharpening beam)
高解析度(synthetic aperture)

-Kh-31A 反艦飛彈介面
-偵測移動地面目標

俄方宣稱運用RVV-AE及 R-27R ﹐其能提供高達50km的獵殺距離﹐故個人認為其最大
偵測距離應為67km
參考資料來源
http://www.milparade.com/1999/34/024.htm
另外﹐其與以色列EL/M-2032 ﹐2001雷達的精彩比較
可參考http://www.milparade.com/1998/25/070.htm
讀者可以發現這款雷達的先進之處

此外﹐PRC的超7極可能使用這款雷達﹐與ZHUK-8II相比﹐可能除了偵測距離外﹐其
他性能皆優於ZHUK-8II﹐不過﹐如前文所述﹐J-8IIM已進行BRLS改裝﹐最後兩者性
能會差不多

F-22A不論，但JSF的主動式相位列陣雷達天線的一個收發模組單價斷不可能如此之高，否則光是天線單元的造價便高達千萬美金以上的話，又要如何維持戰機單價在四千萬美金以下？

個人目前對將改裝在RAFALE MK2戰機上的主動式相位列陣雷達天線單元的造價頗感好奇，如果其構成單元單價也是一萬美元級的話，其單機造價恐將直逼億元大關，對其外銷而言實非
好事。

>F-22A不論，但JSF的主動式相位列陣雷達天線的一個收發模組單價斷不可能如此之高，否則光是天線單元的造價便高達千萬美金以上的話，又要如何維持戰機單價在四千萬美金以下？

這點小弟也是覺得奇怪﹐當然﹐也有可能是老俄“中傷”對手
此外﹐配備主動相雷APG-80的F-16 BLOCK 60的單價高達8千萬USD
小弟也是很好奇JSF的後續發展﹐也有可能利用日本的技術

>個人目前對將改裝在RAFALE MK2戰機上的主動式相位列陣雷達天線單元的造價頗感好奇，如果其構成單元單價也是一萬美元級的話，其單機造價恐將直逼億元大關，對其外銷而言實非
好事。

據了解因為價錢問題﹐RBE-2是採用被動相雷﹐相關資料可參考
http://knight.fcu.edu.tw/~d8741744/rafale.html

a:高達8000萬USD？？....不太可能，這是EF-2000這級數戰機的單價﹔整體性能和EF-2000有一段相當距離的F-16 BLOCK60 若是這等昂貴的話，大概無啥未來可言了。

>個人目前對將改裝在RAFALE MK2戰機上的主動式相位列陣雷達天線單元的造價頗感好奇，如果其構成單元單價也是一萬美元級的話，其單機造價恐將直逼億元大關，對其外銷而言實非好事。

據了解因為價錢問題﹐RBE-2是採用被動相雷﹐相關資料可參考
http://knight.fcu.edu.tw/~d8741744/rafale.html

a:這資料源自1993年全房的一篇探討疾風戰機的專文，略作修改後得來的，目前疾風戰機機上各項科技的最新發展，請參考：

http://www.defense-aerospace.com/data/sponsor_rafale/img/fox3_2.pdf

文中有提及RBE-2可自2006年起升級成有1000個收發模組級的主動相位陣列雷達─只要顧客大爺們有意願兼有銀子的話。

好熟的網址歐∼∼∼∼∼∼∼∼∼應該是該死的前逢甲航模社社長做的網頁

以對地模式而言﹐建立地貌測繪為重點﹐使得SU-27可不依靠外界信息(如衛星)而由
自身地貌測繪的方式來進行導航﹐也可由此相關資料來決定進入目標區的合理飛行
路徑

增強SU-27的多用途功能需要從機載雷達(onboard radar)根本下手﹐確保工作距離
的增長﹐同時追蹤與攻擊目標數量的增加﹐及增多雷達導引武器的控制量和種類等
等

於不久的將來﹐配備槽列天線(Slot Array Antenna (SAA) )的雷達將提供追10打2~4個
目標的能力﹐而相列天線(Phased Array Antenna (PHAA) )能提供追30打6個目標的
能力

此外﹐其提到ZHUK-M雷達的發展﹐希望(請注意希望,NOT Avaliable YET!!)是能偵測180KM外的目標﹐提供追10打2個目標的能力

這些俄制雷達想提昇的功能﹐有一些如地圖測繪導航等功能﹐台灣的GD-53早就有了﹐
不過﹐GD-53的天線是槽列天線(Slot Array Antenna (SAA))﹐已有追10打4的能力

如果能取得衛星測繪的地貌data base﹐會有不同的用途
此外﹐就不知道可否把GD-53發展成被動相雷﹐按照俄國改天線的模式進行﹖

AWST上有介紹。

目前個人手上可確認SU-33搭配ZHUK-MS﹐但有另外一則指出ZHUK-Ms(小寫s)的另一型﹐
在30MKK測試過( http://english.pravda.ru/comp/2001/08/15/12538.html)﹐小弟
持有些保留的態度

此外﹐也有MIG-29SMT與ZHUK-MS的誹聞

>AWST上有介紹

還沒買到啊﹗
連IAPR也還沒等到啊﹗555555555555

科波拉陳兄﹐小弟還是取經失敗
有空還請告知期刊編號﹐小弟設法去圖書館找

New Fighter,,
New Radar,

DAVID A. FULGHUM/WASHINGTON,

Despite a pronounced U.S. lead in active electronically,
scanned array (AliSA) radar development, a key element,
of the F-22 and Joint Strike Fighter programs, Russias,
renowned Phazotron-NIIR radar house is pursuing its own ver-,
sion of the technology.,
Phazotron is looking to European manufacturers for a more
affordable way to build such systems. Nonetheless, company of-,
ficials displayed their prototype, a multi-function Sokol radar,
with AESA-Iike, Phased Array Antenna (PHAA) technology, for,
the first time at the Moscow Air Show.,
Russia will follow the same path [as,
U.S. radar development], said Yuri N.,
Gouskov, deputy general director and first,
deputy general designer of Phazotron. It,
is our future as well.,
Top Phazotron officials say the im-,
proved air-to-air radar will be a key to the,
success of Russias new fifth generation,
fighter program, which is scheduled for,
first flight in five years and full-scale pro-,
duction in a decade. The radar will be a,
federated system, meaning it wont be as,
highly integrated with the rest of the avion-,
ics package as it is in the F-22 or JSF, but,
it will be cheaper.,
THE RADAR IS Phazotrons latest addition,
to a series of new designs intended to of-,
fer customers a wide range of prices and,
capabilities, Gouskov said. Another new,
entry is the multi-mode ZHUK-MS radar,
designed as an upgrade for Chinas,
Su-30MKK aircraft and the Russian,
Navys Su-33. It is a 980-mm.-dia. slot-,
array antenna. In addition to a multi-tar-,
get, air-to-air capability, the radar can track moving ground tar-,
gets. The radar has undergone all its flight tests in China and is,
being prepared for series production. So far, 12 of the radars are,
on order. The ZHUK-MF has a 980-mm. passive, phased-array,
antenna with a 70-deg.-azimuth scan angle, capable of tracking,
up to 30 targets and engaging as many as six of them. The base-,
line ZHUK-M was designed for the MEG-29.,

Phazotron has revealed a prototype,,
active-phased-army antenna radar with,
similarities to those being built in the U.S.,
for the F-22 and Joint Strike Fighter.,

Phazotron also is developing two families of radars designed
to be easily adaptable to any aircraft of any country, interfaced,
with any type of weapon or navigation system, Gouskov said.,
Active-phased-array antenna [technology] is being developed
by the U.S., a European consortium, Russia and China, but the,
status is different in each country, Gouskov said. The U.S. is,
leading because of its greater investment. Were going along that,
path of design, but were using cheaper European-style tech-,
nology that doesnt rely on monolithic T/R [transmitter-re-,
ceiver] modules. By not using a single crystal, it becomes less,
expensive. Were not copying the Europeans, but we believe we,
can achieve the same level of technology. Essentially, we can,
not afford more expensive T/R modules, he acknowledged.,
Gouskov said he expects the company to eventually take the
next step and follow the U.S. into using monolithic T/R mod-,
ules. However, he contends that development of that technol-,
ogy went faster than expected when Phazotron devised its ini-,
tial AESA research and development plans.,
Phazotron planners want to have their
prototype flying on a yet-to-be-determined,
fghter next year, Gouskov said. They al-,
ready have a brass-board version operat-,
ing in their laboratory. The research work,
is not just focused on the arra)5 he stressed.,
The back-end processing components also,
are being enhanced.,
THE FIGHTER CHOSEN for the early flight
testing will be determined by funding,,
Gouskov said. IfSukhoi provides some of,
the money, flight testing would likely take,
place on an Su-27 or an Su-30. With full,
funding, an operational system could be,
ready by 2003, he contends.,
Company officials expect their initial
flying prototype will be an array about,
700 mm. in diameter and consisting of,
about 1,000 air-cooled elements. Cur-,
rently, radar antenna sizes are projected,
as 980 mm. for the Su-27 family, 700 mm.,
for the MEG-29 and 440 mm. for small-,
er aircraft like the Yak-130 trainer. An-,
other application for the smaller array,
would be a rearward-looking installation,
on an Su-30 or other, larger fighters, to provide coverage in the,
rear hemisphere.,
As the company develops its manufacturing techniques, they
will start building and testing the larger arrays. Currently, offi-,
cials are conducting an internal competition between four en-,
terprises that could manufacture the T/R modules. Eventually,,
the company hopes to use its production capability to build,
large, ground-surveillance radars, similar to technology the U.S.,
is pursuing for the Global Hawk unmanned reconnaissance air-,
craft or E-8 Joint-STARS upgrade.,
In a parallel effort, they are designing software to operate the
multiple-element radar. The AESA-type radar uses software,
intensively because it must search for targets, jam, communi-,
cate and perform a range of other activities almost simultane-,
ously. Initially, Phazotron expects to develop both air-tracking,
modes and ground-moving-target functions.,
Advocates of AESA technology say it holds the key to longer,

ranges and better discrimination of targets, in a package small,
enough to fit into fighter-size aircraft. U.S. builders daim that,
their new radars have ranges of 120 naut. mi., almost double,
that of most fighters flying today. Such a radar is necessary to,
allow the development of new, long-range, air-to-air missiles.,
U.S. researchers also daim the new radar will be an impor-
tant tool in finding stealthy targets at tactically useful ranges.,
U.S. Air Force tests have used a combination of large-aperture,
S- and X-band radar to locate low-radar cross-section (RCS),
cruise missiles. 0,

ZHUK-MS應該還是SAA型﹐其近日發展的ZHUK-MSE(請參考http://www.milparade.com/2001/
46/04_06.shtml)也是SAA型﹐不過偵測距離增加了50%

或者是﹐測試中的SU-30MKK是使用ZHUK-MSE﹖﹗

AESA是指主動電子掃描陣列﹐而APG-80是主動電子掃描陣列的一種

>2.ZHUK-M雷達的性能好像是同步攻擊4個目標吧，2個的是ZHUK-8-2吧，是不是我記錯了？

可參考這篇NIIR的文章
http://www.aviapanorama.ru/journal/2000_3/8.HTM
從資料看來﹐目前還是2個﹐即使改進﹐若沒有採用電子掃描陣列﹐最多只有4個﹗

ZHUK-8II只有同時接戰2個﹐相關改進﹐可參考本欄的翻譯新聞摘要

目前多是以主動相雷為主﹐有關被動相雷的發展只挖到一則Northrop Grumman
的消息﹐提到﹐在98年度的國會預算有編列一筆錢給Northrop Grumman發展
被動相雷
http://www.dtic.mil/dust/cgr/appaaf.htm

其中提到﹐希望其發展的被動電子掃描相列的價錢為2萬5~5萬的級數﹐個人認為﹐
如果成真﹐不但會狠狠刮了俄國一頓﹐連美國自己的主動相雷發展都會受重傷﹗

如果因為各項陰謀使該計劃無法成行﹐可考慮台灣的GD-53升級計劃﹗

別忘了F16上的APG66 升級F16的計畫才會使我們對外得到商機
不過這兩型雷達被拆下來後要做何用途 國防部自己要先想清楚
基本上四十架F5E/F已經有了AN/APQ159V5
那只有剩大約四十架的F5E/F 和 AT3可用他來UPDATE
中科院不是有把GD-53改做地面雷達 不知結果如何

APG-66應該引照AT-3模式﹐放在AT-3上可搭載HF-2
不過﹐F-16的提昇很可能參考昂貴的APG-80﹐有改多少架﹐端視SU-30MKK上的ZHUK-MS有
多少架升級為被動相雷

至于APG-66V3﹐更換APG-80真的很傷﹐除非也按照ZHUK-M改成相雷的模式﹐但美國
人可能會有顧忌也很難說﹐但汰換掉APG-66V3﹐可裝在AT-3或F-5E上﹐老實說﹐SU-30MKK要
是有相當數量配備相雷﹐才有考慮的必要

11. AESA radars are a significant improvement over first generation phased
array radars, which are passive (rather than active) electronically scanned
arrays. Microwave power in an AESA radar is generated in a series of compact,
lightweight transmit and receive modules (T/R modules) containing the
MMICs. Passive array radars (as well as dish-type radars), in contrast,
use heavy, bulky traveling wave tubes and waveguides. AESA radars are therefore
much smaller and lighter than passive arrays. AESA radars also offer superior
reliability, since failures of T/R modules only gradually degrade system
performance, while failure of a traveling wave tube disables the radar.
Moreover, because power amplifier MMICs are more efficient and thus produce
less waste heat than tubes. AESA radars require less power from the engines
and generators of the aircraft, ships or other systems in which they are
deployed. Power amplifier MMICs are also much less expensive to produce
in medium to large production volumes than tubes, resulting in less expensive
radars.
http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f5100/5109.htm

主動相雷除了可做到比被動相雷小外﹐由於其使用的MMIC效率比一般行波管(traveling
wave tube)高﹐除了產生廢熱少﹐其所需的電力較小

Factors affecting Radar performance

The performance of a radar system can be judged by the following: (1) the
maximum range at which it can see a target of a specified size, (2) the
accuracy of its measurement of target location in range and angle, (3) its
ability to distinguish one target from another, (4) its ability to detect
the desired target echo when masked by large clutter echoes, unintentional
interfering signals from other friendly transmitters, or intentional

radiation

from hostile jamming (if a military radar), (5) its ability to recognize
the type of target, and (6) its availability (ability to operate when needed)
, reliability, and maintainability. Some of the major factors that affect
performance are discussed in this section.

Transmitter power and antenna size

The maximum range of a radar system depends in large part on the average
power of its transmitter and the physical size of its antenna. (In technical
terms, this is the power-aperture product.) There are practical limits to
each. As noted before, some radar systems have an average power of roughly
one megawatt. Phased-array radars about 100 feet in diameter are not uncommon;
some are much larger. Likewise, mechanically scanned reflector antennas about
100 feet or larger in size can be found. There are specialized radars with
(fixed) antennas, such as some HF over-the-horizon radars and the U.S. Space
Surveillance System (SPASUR), that extend more than one mile.

Receiver noise

The sensitivity of a radar receiver is determined by the unavoidable noise
that appears at its input. At microwave radar frequencies, the noise that
limits detectability is usually generated by the receiver itself (i.e.,
by the random motion of electrons at the input of the receiver) rather than
by external noise that enters the receiver via the antenna. The radar engineer
often employs a transistor amplifier as the first stage of the receiver
even though lower noise can be obtained with more sophisticated devices.
This is an example of the application of the basic engineering principle
that the best performance that can be obtained might not necessarily be
the solution that best meets the needs of the user.
The receiver is designed to enhance the desired signals and to reduce the
noise and other undesired signals that interfere with detection. The designer
attempts to maximize the detectability of weak signals by using what radar
engineers call a matched filter, which is a filter that maximizes the
signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver output. The matched filter has a precise
mathematical formulation that depends on the shape of the input signal and
the character of the receiver noise. A suitable approximation to the matched
filter for the ordinary pulse radar, however, is one whose bandwidth in
hertz is the reciprocal of the pulse width in seconds.

Target size

The size of a target as seen by radar is not always related to the physical
size of the object. The measure of the target size as observed by radar
is called the radar cross section and is given in units of area (square
metres). It is possible for two targets with the same physical cross sectional
area to differ considerably in radar size, or radar cross section. For example,
a flat plate one square metre in area will produce a radar cross section
of about 1,000 square metres at a frequency of 3,000 megahertz (S band)
when viewed perpendicular to the surface. A cone-sphere (an object resembling
an ice-cream cone) when viewed in the direction of the cone rather than
the sphere could have a radar cross section one thousandth of a square metre
even though its projected area is also one square metre. In theory, this
value does not depend to a great extent on the size of the cone or the cone
angle. Thus the flat plate and the cone-sphere can have radar cross sections
that differ by a million to one even though their physical projected areas
are the same.
The sphere is an unusual target in that its radar cross section is the same
as its physical cross section area (when its circumference is large compared
to the radar wavelength). That is to say, a sphere with a projected area
of one square metre has a radar cross section of one square metre.
Commercial aircraft might have radar cross sections from about 10 to 100
square metres, except when viewed broadside, where it is much larger. (This
is an aspect that is seldom of interest, however.) Most air-traffic-control
radars are required to detect aircraft with a radar cross section as low
as two square metres, since some small general-aviation aircraft can be of
this value. For comparison, the radar cross section of a man has been measured
at microwave frequencies to be about one square metre. A bird can have a
cross section of 0.01 square metre. Although this is a small value, a bird
can be readily detected at ranges of several tens of miles by long-range
radar. In general, many birds can be picked up by radar so that special
measures must usually be taken to insure that echoes from birds do not

interfere

with the detection of desired targets.
The radar cross section of an aircraft and most other targets of practical
interest is not a constant but, rather, fluctuates rapidly as the aspect
of the target changes with respect to the radar unit. It would not be unusual
for a slight change in aspect to cause the radar cross section to change
by a factor of 10 to 1,000. (Radar engineers have to take this fluctuation
in the radar cross section of targets into account in their design.)

Clutter

Echoes from land, sea, rain, snow, hail, birds, insects, auroras, and meteors
are of interest to those who observe and study the environment, but they
are a nuisance to those who want to detect and follow aircraft, ships, missiles,
or other similar targets. Clutter echoes can seriously limit the capability
of a radar system; thus a significant part of radar design is devoted to
minimizing the effects of clutter without reducing the echoes from desired
targets. The Doppler frequency shift is the usual means by which moving
targets are distinguished from the clutter of stationary objects. Detection
of targets in rain is less of a problem at the lower frequencies, since
the radar echo from rain decreases rapidly with decreasing frequency and
the average cross section of aircraft is relatively independent of frequency
in the microwave region. Because raindrops are more or less spherical (symmetrical)
and aircraft are asymmetrical, the use of circular polarization can enhance
the detection of aircraft in rain. With circular polarization, the electric
field rotates at the radar frequency. Because of this, the electromagnetic
energy reflected by the rain and the aircraft will be affected differently,
thereby making it easier to distinguish between the two. (In fair weather,
most radars use linear polarization--i.e., the direction of the field is
fixed.)

Atmospheric effects

As was mentioned, rain and other forms of precipitation can cause echo signals
that mask the desired target echoes. There are other atmospheric phenomena
that can affect radar performance as well. The decrease in density of the
Earths atmosphere with increasing altitude causes radar waves to bend as
they propagate through the atmosphere. This usually increases the detection
range at low angles to a slight extent. The atmosphere can form ducts
that trap and guide radar energy around the curvature of the Earth and allow
detection at ranges beyond the normal horizon. Ducting over water is more
likely to occur in tropical climates than in colder regions. Ducts can sometimes
extend the range of an airborne radar, but on other occasions they may cause
the radar energy to be diverted and not illuminate regions below the ducts.
This results in the formation of what are called radar holes in the coverage.
Since it is not predictable or reliable, ducting can in some instances
be more of a nuisance than a help.
Loss of radar energy, when propagation is through the clear atmosphere or
rain, is usually insignificant for systems operating at microwave frequencies.

Interference

Signals from nearby radars and other transmitters can be strong enough to
enter a radar receiver and produce spurious responses. Well-trained operators
are not often deceived by interference, though they may find it a nuisance.
Interference is not as easily ignored by automatic detection and tracking
systems, however, and so some method is usually needed to recognize and remove
interference pulses before they enter the automatic detector and tracker
of a radar.

Electronic countermeasures

The purpose of hostile electronic countermeasures (ECM) is to deliberately
degrade the effectiveness of military radar. ECM can consist of (1) noise
jamming that enters the receiver via the antenna and increases the noise
level at the input of the receiver, (2) false target generation, or repeater
jamming, by which hostile jammers introduce additional signals into the radar
receiver in an attempt to confuse the receiver into thinking they are real
target echoes, (3) chaff, which is an artificial cloud consisting of a large
number of tiny metallic reflecting strips that create strong echoes over
a large area to mask the presence of real target echoes or to create confusion,
and (4) decoys, which are small, inexpensive air vehicles or other objects
designed to appear to the radar as if they were real targets. Military radars
are also subject to direct attack by conventional weapons or by antiradiation
missiles (ARMs) that use radar transmissions to find the target and home
on it.
Military radar engineers have developed various ways of countering hostile
ECM and maintaining the ability of a radar system to perform its mission.
It might be noted that a military radar system can often accomplish its
mission satisfactorily even though its performance in the presence of ECM
is not what it would be if such measures were absent.